Methods of human anatomy. Methods of anatomy research

One of the most ancient and important for human sciences is anatomy. And not only that which concerns the person directly. Methods of studying the anatomy of plants and animals have also made it possible to understand a great deal in the design of the surrounding world.

Thanks to this science and its development, improvement over time, people have managed to get rid of many diseases, have learned to save themselves from dangers, have realized the importance of caring for preserving their health. Therefore, various methods of anatomy, physiology and hygiene are the key to understanding the processes in the body, its internal structure, without which it is impossible to positively influence and manage health while preserving it.

Anatomy: general concept, subject of study

What is anatomy as a science? It is a discipline that studies the external and internal structure of organisms. Various methods of anatomy make it possible to understand the following.

1. How the organs are located in the body of an organism.
2. How they are interrelated, what unites them and what is their significance for the whole being as a whole.
3. What is their internal and external structure, up to micro-ultrastructures.
4. What organs should be normal, and how they change in diseases, from bad habits, external and internal influences of various kinds.
5. What processes are the basis of life activity, and thanks to what systems and organs exist living systems.

Of course, not only does one anatomy study all of the above. There is a whole complex of related sciences, which together provide complete information. The tasks of anatomy and physiology just come down to embracing the whole complex of knowledge about the living, about its structure and functioning, and also to understand the psychic and psychosomatic processes taking place in the human CNS.

The object of studying anatomy is a specific representative of wildlife. It can be:

• human;
• animal;
• plant;
• Bacteria;
• Mushrooms.

We will dwell in more detail on the consideration of a being, as a person, from the point of view of a designated discipline.

Objectives of anatomy as a science

There are several main tasks that this discipline performs.

1. Studies not only the internal and external structure of each organism, but also correlates the processes occurring in it with age and historical changes in time.
2. He studies phylogeny, ontogeny and anthropogenesis of his object.
3. He considers the relationship between the structure and functioning of organs and systems of organs among themselves.
4. Evaluates the general condition of the body, its constitution, parts of the body and organs.

Thus, the tasks of human anatomy cover the whole complex of necessary knowledge. To solve these problems, like any other sciences, the discipline that we are considering also has its secrets. Methods of studying anatomy are quite diverse, and they have been formed for a long time. The choice was dictated by the needs in the knowledge of the deep mechanisms of the work of the human body.

Classification

There are several main sections that are part of the science under consideration.

1. Normal anatomy.
2. Pathological.
3. Comparative.
4. Topographical.

Each of them has its own methods of studying the anatomy, as well as general, by means of which various parameters are examined. Together, these disciplines provide a complete description of the structure of the object of study, as well as its functioning and development over time.

Methods of studying anatomy

There is a wide variety of different research options in the field of anatomy, physiology and related sciences. After all, man has managed to look into the deepest essence, to see and study the microstructures of his organism. The most important methods of studying anatomy are as follows.

1. Injection.
2. Corrosion method.
3. The method of enlightenment.
4. Ice anatomy, or the cutting of frozen corpses.
5. Vorob'ev's method, or micro-macroscopic.
6. Radiography.
7. CT scan.

Each of them includes a number of even finer and more precise methods of investigation. Together, all the above methods of anatomy and give the result that physicians, anatomists, physiologists and other scientists in the field of human research. Let us consider these methods of studying the anatomy in more detail.

Injection-corrosive method

This method widely uses anatomy. Methods of human research, based on the introduction of even the finest capillary formations of special solidifying or colored substances that allow an unaided view of the system of blood and lymphatic vessels. Thus substances can be of different nature, for example:

• gypsum;
• gelatin;
• wax;
• rosin;
• Celluloid and others.

Most often, the masses are colored with different colors and receive an accurate image of the organ from the inside. Thanks to this scientist, a picture becomes available that reflects the order of interaction between these or those vessels and capillaries.

Also, if necessary, such methods of anatomy, as injections, can give the material to compile an exact dummy of the organ. To do this, the colored solidified mass is introduced into the vessel and the curing is expected. After that, they act with a certain substance capable of destroying living tissues around, but not affecting the mass of the introduced substance (for example, strong alkalis or acids). This is how the organ dissolves, and only its mold remains, which has a high degree of accuracy in reflecting its internal structure.

In addition to corrosive destruction under the influence of strong oxidants, other substances that are capable of causing enlightenment of certain organs are often used. These substances include:

• glycerol;
• benzene;
• Cedar oil;
• Benzyl benzoate;
• Isozafrole and others.

That is, the tissues around the introduced mass simply become transparent, very strongly lighten. This also provides information on the structure and functioning of the vessel.

Injection is considered to be one of the most accurate methods of anatomy. It is used most often in combination with subsequent treatments. Thus, with the introduction of a mass that does not transmit gamma radiation, the organism is later to be studied by X-ray diffraction. This results in a qualitative image of the organ, its integrity, its relationship with other structures.

After injection, there comes a time when it is required to introduce a potent substance capable of breaking down, causing corrosion of living tissues around the frozen mass of the preparation. This is done to obtain a qualitative model of the structure of the organ. This way you can extract from the body an exact copy of the former part of the body, and the image will be as real as possible and transmitted with the smallest details.

Injection-corrosion methods of human anatomy were first used by the scientist F. Ruysch. In Russia, the anatomists began to apply this method a little later. Among the most famous Russian names that gave a course and development to this direction, the following sound:

• PF Lesgaft;
• VM Shumlyansky;
• I. V. Buyalsky.

Preparations created by their efforts are still used as educational and scientific aids and stored in an anatomical museum.

The tasks and methods of anatomy are closely interdependent. After all, exactly what you need to know determines the ways to achieve this. To look inside all organs, to find out what their morpho-topographic characteristics are, to reveal features of interaction with other parts of the body - this is one of the tasks of the science in question.

Corrosion method allows to solve it successfully enough. You can get accurate models that reflect the structure:

• Hollow organs (heart, brain ventricles);
• Parenchymal organs (kidneys, liver);
• Vessels of macro- and microcircular bed;
• Prostate cancer.

Of particular importance is the penetration precisely into the vessels and capillaries, because with the help of other methods this is impossible. At present, the most popular material for injection is silicone, which hardens long enough, but is less toxic than others and does not shrink. Thus, not only the structure, but also the actual dimensions of the organ under investigation is reflected.

The method of enlightenment

This is one of the most interesting ways of studying anatomy. Its essence is as follows. The organ or part of the body is impregnated with special acid solutions that allow it to bind water and swell, turning into a jelly-like mass. The refractive index of the light of the solvent and the organ becomes equal to each other, the part of the body acquires transparency.

Thus, a qualitative image of the internal environment of the organism is obtained through transparent tissues without their destruction, as, for example, in a corrosive process. Most often this method is used in the study of the nervous system, its parts and organs.

What allows you to see and determine a similar way of research?

1. Topography of the location of organs in the body.
2. Anatomical features of the whole organism or its individual parts.
3. Mutual relations of organs in the body.

Obviously, before the previously considered corrosion method, this method has its advantages.

Icy Anatomy

The tasks of human anatomy and physiology are reduced to a detailed study of not only the structure, location, but also the functioning of a particular organ and organism as a whole. And this requires obtaining such an image or creating a model that fully reflects the true behavior of the body part in the living body.

But it is impossible to expose a living person to complete anatomical research. Work at all times had to with corpses. Atmospheric pressure, mechanical deformation and other factors led to a change in the location of the organ after the opening of the corpse, to its morphological and physiological changes. Therefore, it was not possible to get a reliable picture for a long time.

Academician NI Pirogov decided this problem. He proposed a method for cutting frozen corpses. For this, the human corpse is previously fixed, processed and strongly frozen. And this is done as soon as possible after the onset of death, so that the body does not lose its lifetime topography of organs.

After this procedure, the ice corpse is an ideal material for work. You can make cuts in different directions of any parts of the body and get absolutely accurate real images. This method of research has far advanced surgery.

The same scientists were offered the so-called ice sculpture. The creation of this is to layer layers and underlying tissues down to the necessary organ from a heavily frozen body. Thus, realistic three-dimensional images are obtained, on the basis of which it is quite possible to judge the topography, interposition and interrelation of all parts of the organism among themselves.

Radiography and tomography

The most modern methods of studying anatomy are related to the use of computer and electronic technologies, and also closely based on the use of electromagnetic radiation. The most important of them are:

• Tomography (magnetic resonance, computer);
• Radiography.

Tomography is a modern method, completely replacing the method of Pirogov. Thanks to magnetic resonance or X-rays, it is possible to obtain a three-dimensional image of any human organ that is in a living state. That is, thanks to this modern method, there is no need to conduct research on corpses.

Computer tomography is the use of X-rays. The method was invented in 1972 by American scientists, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize. The essence lies in the transmissive ability of tissues to X-ray radiation. Since they themselves differ in density, the absorption also goes unevenly. Thus it becomes possible to perform a detailed detailed layered examination of the inner part of the organ.

The received data is downloaded to the computer, where they are very difficult to process, calculations are based on measurements, and the result is output. Such studies are necessary for the following medical indications:

• Before operations;
• In severe injuries;
• Cerebral hemorrhage ;
• lungs' cancer;
• Fainting;
• Causeless dizziness;
• Damage to blood vessels and organs;
• Procedure of puncture and others.

Magnetic resonance imaging is based on the emission of certain electromagnetic waves in a constant magnetic field. In this case, the excitation of atomic nuclei is caused, their electromagnetic response is measured, and conclusions are drawn on the basis of the indices. Using this method, the brain, spine, vessels and other structures are examined.

Radiographic methods of anatomy are based on the use of gamma radiation, which has an unequal permeability for different tissues. In this case, the reflection of the rays is fixed on special paper or film, so the image of the desired organ is obtained on it. In such ways, investigate:

• spine;
• Organs of the abdominal cavity;
• lungs;
• Vessels;
• skeleton;
• Tumor diseases;
• teeth;
• Mammary glands and other organs and parts of the body.

The modern methods of human anatomy considered are universal for all living things and are also used in veterinary medicine. However, each of them has a number of contraindications, which are explained by the individual characteristics of each creature, its diseases and the general state of health.

Pathological anatomy

The subject and the methods of anatomy should be related to each other very harmoniously, so that people can get the most reliable result. Therefore, practically every section of anatomy has its own set of specific methods of human research.

Thus, pathological anatomy is a discipline that is able to identify and study, to find methods of combating pathologies, diseases at the micro level, that is, at the stage of their cellular development. This same science deals with the cause of death. For research in the field of microstructures - cells, tissues, intracellular changes, various methods of pathological anatomy are used.

These include the following varieties.

1. Autopsy - in other words, this is an autopsy of a person's body after his death to establish its cause. Produces her doctor-pathologist. He takes samples from the body for research, which is carried out in the laboratory. Based on the findings, the doctor writes a conclusion about the causes of death and morphophysiological changes that could be fixed. Most often this verdict coincides with the clinical one, which is made by the attending physician. However, disagreements also occur, which are considered at general anatomical and medical conferences.
2. Biopsy. These methods include visual studies of living samples taken from a person, as well as taking material from internal organs (puncture). The difference from the previous method lies precisely in the fact that research is conducted on the basis of a living organism.
3. Immunohistochemical methods are the study of deep processes inside the cell, its protein composition, belonging to a particular type of tissue. These methods are very important for modern diagnostics of cancer.
4. Electron microscopy - the use of very high resolution equipment, which allows you to study even the ultra microstructure of any organ and cell.
5. Hybridization in place. This method is based on the work with the detection of nucleic acids. In this way, information is obtained about pathological processes that are latent or latent. Diagnosed with hepatitis, AIDS, the herpes virus and other ailments.

In general, the data of pathological anatomy are very important for the development of medical knowledge about the structure and development of man.

Anatomy of the central nervous system

The tasks of anatomy of the central nervous system are reduced to a complete and profound study of the structure of nerve cells, tissues, organs and the system as a whole. Also studied is not only the historical, but also the individual development of the nervous system with age. The brain is considered as a substrate for the realization of all mental functions.

Since all issues related to the structure and functioning of the system under consideration are very important and need to be considered in detail, the methods of anatomy of the central nervous system are also quite complex and specific. There are two options for research in this area.

1. Microscopic. They are based on the use of special equipment that allows you to get a multiply-enlarged image of an organ (its part). Thus, optical microscopy is distinguished - the study of sections of nervous tissue, electronic - the study of cellular structures, molecules, substances that form the outer sphere of the object.
2. Macroscopic. Here, several life and post-death versions of the study are isolated. In vivo are:

• Radiography;
• CT scan;
• Magnetic resonance;
• Positron emission;
• electroencephalography.

Post-death methods include:

• anatomy;
• Injection and corrosion;
• Radiography.

All these methods of studying the anatomy of the central nervous system were considered above. From narrowly specific for this system can be called EEG (electroencephalography) and positron emission tomography. The first is based on registration with the help of an encephalograph of special biorhythms of brain cells (alpha and beta rhythms), on the basis of which a conclusion is made about the functioning and number of living cells. A study is carried out through intact integument of the brain on a living person. In general, the procedure is completely safe, however, there are some contraindications.