Induction and deduction: the historical aspect

By the end of the 16th century, all the prerequisites for the transition to rationalist positions, to the experimental-experimental method of cognition of the world, had developed in European philosophy. Among the thinkers who first advanced the ideas of experimental science were F. Bacon and R. Descartes.

Those principles of scientific knowledge, which were substantiated by these scientists, created an almost new philosophical and methodological setting. It largely overcame the limitations of the Aristotelian organon and medieval scholasticism, which did not recognize experience as a source of knowledge of reality.

According to Bacon, in order to consistently and really explore the world of nature, the method of induction and deduction should be applied. In the framework of the inductive method, it is necessary, in his opinion, to follow from the particular to the general, from particular facts to move towards generalizing conclusions, which F. Bacon gave the name - the middle axioms. This will make it possible to ensure accuracy and gradualness in the cognitive process, since Bacon saw a great danger in the transition from individual facts fixed in consciousness to generalizations at once. This mechanism of the movement of thought was not opposed to the deductive-syllogistic model of reasoning, but rather effectively complemented it. In a word, induction and deduction were organically combined within the framework of a single methodological tool. This approach significantly expanded the scope of application of each of the components of the induction-deductive method, which were previously used independently of each other.

Bacon argued that there is complete and incomplete induction-deduction, and thanks to this, it has sufficiently defined their methodological capabilities and place in the general system of cognitive resources of modern science. The thinker considered the highest form of this method to be a true induction, which, according to Bacon's assertion, is capable of leading a person not only to reliable conclusions, but to conclusions completely new. As their verification, it is recommended to resort to another method, an experiment that acts as a higher authority in relation to the thesis being proved.

As is known, today the definition of induction is formulated quite clearly - it is the process of ascent in reasoning from a set of separate judgments to generalized single conclusions. Deduction involves making a move in a different direction - from generalized inferences to individual conclusions, which are valid for all objects making up a given set.

If we consider the categories of induction and deduction in the context of their historical development, then the picture is somewhat more complicated.

In the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages, scientists used mainly deduction, the main achievement and form of which was the syllogistics of Aristotle. As already mentioned, here the idea is directed from axioms to particular judgments. For the knowledge of the laws of nature, the use of such a method is not effective, because this method is completely not based on experience. The only thing that can be supported by experience is induction, which presupposes the movement of study from individual facts that are amenable to experimental verification to general provisions. It is interesting that Aristotle himself described the induction, however, at one time he did not attach any scientific and applied significance to it. But he considered F. Bacon's powerful methodological tool in it, and R. Descartes developed the principles of practical application on the basis of an experimental verification of the reliability of facts. These scientists have proved that induction and deduction can fulfill universal functions in cognition.

Induction, acting as a formal logical conclusion, is very widely used in the cognitive process. The logic of the inductive algorithm is as follows: by detecting identical properties of objects of one class, the cognizing subject formulates the conclusion that all of them belong to all the subjects making up a given class. Thanks to this algorithm of thought expansion, the law of universal gravitation was discovered, the regularities of atmospheric pressure dependencies and other empirical dependences existing in the observed nature are substantiated.

Deduction, representing a movement of thinking from the general to the individual, played an enduring role in the development of theoretical science at the stage of formulating the hypothesis of the idea. In this case, it represents the starting point for the formation of a new system of knowledge.

In modern scientific methodology, induction and deduction interact with each other in approximately the same way as, for example, synthesis and analysis, and their use implies the need for a competent choice of exactly the area where the place of each of the methods gives the greatest effect.