Theories and stages of human development: description, features

Human development is a process that begins with conception and continues until death. From childhood to the period of adulthood, there is physical growth. But cognitive development does not stop throughout life. What are the basic theories of the periodization of the life cycle of man?

Human development in terms of biology

Different theories and stages of human development are developed in accordance with certain criteria that are taken to determine life stages. In biology, the first of such factors is the fertilization of the egg. The scientific name of human development is ontogeny. The fusion of the egg and spermatozoon gives rise to ontogeny. Since its primary stages occur in the female body, ontogeny is divided into prenatal and postnatal.

The prenatal period is divided into embryonic (from conception to 2 months) and fetal (from the 3rd to the 9th month). During the embryonic period, there is an increasing increase in the number of cells that take on different functions in the future organism. During the second month of development, internal organs begin to form. The head, neck, trunk, limbs are formed.

The birth of every child is considered a miracle. Despite the fact that in the whole world this miracle happens every moment, many interesting features are associated with it. For example, in the preceding conception, about 300 million male spermatozoa participate in the race. Approximately the same is the number of people living in the United States of America. By the time of birth, the child's brain is already supplied with ten million nerve cells.

Development of the body from the womb to old age. Growth sprees

From the third month of intrauterine development, there is an increase in the body, which continues after the birth of the child. And from the moment of birth begins the process of adaptation of the organism to environmental conditions. The child acquires new skills that are layered on his heredity. Accelerated growth of the body is observed during several stages: this is the period of early childhood (from one to three years), from 5 to 7 years, and also in the period of puberty (from 11 to 16 years). By 20-25 years, the growth of the human body is coming to an end. Now comes a relatively stable period in the life cycle - maturity. After 55-60 years, the human body begins to age gradually.

Biogenetic Law

In biology, there is the Haeckel-Müller law , or biogenetic law. It says that each individual in his development to some extent repeats those stages that were his ancestors. In other words, a person from his conception goes through those stages of the evolution of living organisms that unfolded throughout history. For the first time this law was derived by the scientist Ernst Haeckel in 1866.

Psychological development of a person from childhood to adulthood

For the first time in the domestic science, the stages of human development began to be considered at the beginning of the 20th century. When dividing the life cycle, factors such as physical growth, spiritual and psychological development were taken into account. Over the division of this period, prominent Russian scientists worked on the phases: NI Pirogov, LS Vygotsky, KD Ushinsky. By tradition, several stages were identified: the period of intrauterine development, childhood, adolescence and adolescence.

Intrauterine development, in turn, was divided into several stages. The first of these is pre-embryo. Its duration is 2 weeks from conception. The next stage is called the embryonic stage and lasts two months. It is followed by the fetus, which lasts until the birth of the child.

According to the criteria of scientists, childhood is also divided into several important stages. This infancy (from 0 to a year), early age (1-3 years), preschool age (3-7 years), as well as junior school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years). These periods are also characterized by different stages of development of self-education in man. An important role in this is played by the leading activities characteristic of a certain age. For example, for the early childhood, the so-called subject-manipulative activity is characteristic. The child learns to use the objects that surround him. And for junior schoolchildren, for example, such an activity is educational. Children begin to learn theoretical forms of thinking. They learn to learn and use their theoretical knowledge.

What happens in childhood?

The early stages of a person's development are the time when his socialization takes place and he becomes a full member of society. Childhood is the age in which the psychological maturity of the personality is formed. It is interesting that the duration of childhood in our era is not equal to the time that was allocated to this stage of human life earlier. In different epochs the periods of childhood lasted different times, and therefore the age periodization is always considered the product of this or that culture and civilization. For example, even at the beginning of the 20th century. The period of youth ended very quickly - already at 13-14 years, many children began to work on an equal basis with adults. The stages in the development of human society determine the boundaries of the age periods inherent in their era.

Adolescence and youth

The next period of development is adolescence. This includes the adolescent stage, or puberty (it lasts an average of 15 years), as well as adolescent (lasting up to 22-23 years). At this time, a certain picture of the world begins to develop in the adolescents, an idea of their place in society.

Different researchers differently determine the stages in the development of human life, in particular adolescence and adolescence. Some scientists distinguish early youth (from 15 to 18 years), as well as late (from 18 to 23 years). One way or another, by the end of the period of adolescence, the physiological formation of man is coming to an end. At this time his self-consciousness is finally forming, the questions of professional self-realization come to the fore. In the early stages of adolescence, interests, plans for the future, the need for labor are formed, and human independence, including financial independence, is affirmed.

The period of adulthood

The next step in the life cycle of a person is adulthood. It also represents the most prolonged stage. In developed countries, for example, adulthood takes up to three-quarters of the total life expectancy. At this stage, three periods are distinguished: early adulthood, or youth; Average adulthood; As well as late adulthood (this includes aging and old age).

The main feature that is characteristic of the period of old age is the wisdom accumulated in a lifetime. What will be the old age of a person, largely depends on his way of life in adulthood. The main need of the elderly is not only the care of loved ones, but also the opportunity to share experiences.

Life acquisitions during adulthood

Scientists emphasize that adulthood and maturity are not equivalent concepts. Unlike previous stages, where physical maturation occurs, the period of adulthood is more associated with cognitive development. At this stage, people learn to take responsibility for their decisions. A person has certain personality traits. This, for example, is hardness, honesty, compassion. The scientist E. Erikson argues that at this stage of human development, identity is formed to itself. Adulthood, the researcher notes, is the age in which important acts are committed. The main features of this period are productivity, creativity, and also some inconvenience. A person strives to reach heights in his professional sphere, become a better parent, and support his relatives.

Work and care are signs of an adult. If the individual calms down in relation to any sphere of his life, stagnation and even degradation can occur here. These negative phenomena are manifested in the absorption of their problems and self-pity. These problems are overcome through the formation of attitudes to overcome problems, and not through constant complaint about evil fate.

The stages of human development according to Freud

Classical psychoanalysis does not lose its relevance today. Currently, Freud's theories are one of the fundamental concepts of personality. From his point of view, human development is a process of adaptation to the external conditions of the world. The scientist distinguished three layers of the psyche in man - the so-called "It", or "Id"; "I", or "Ego"; And also "Super-I" - "Superego". "Id" is an unconscious, or primitive part of a person. "Ego" is a conscious and rational part. "Super-Ego" is a kind of ideal, to which man seeks, his conscience is included here. In this part of the personality, in the process of development, the parent attitudes are rooted, as well as the social norms accepted in society.

Currently, many theories and stages of human evolution, especially in psychology, include the information received by Freud. He believed that the main stages of human development are oral (from birth to one and a half years), anal (from year to 3 years), phallic (from 3 to 6 years), latent (from 6-7 to 12 years), and Also genital (12-18 years). The Austrian scientist believed that the stages of development are peculiar steps for a person, on any of which he can "get stuck" even to the very end of his life. Then certain components of child sexuality will be included in the neurotic complex of the adult.